The Multi Store Model Of Memory And Research Into...

Discuss how memory can be explained with reference to models of memory and research into Eyewitness Testimony. Introduction The investigation into memory - how we encode, store and retrieve data - made great advances in the 20th century. Along with biological influences memories define who we are, without them our individuality would be lost. This essay will scrutinize the multi-store model of memory and working model of memory to determine their legitimacy. Each model will be examined on its merits at how it explains cognitive functions. Through tools such as the cognitive interview, eyewitness testimony has been deployed in countries around the world to send millions to lengthy prison sentences. Despite its widespread use, the question remains: how much can we trust someone’s memory in the courtroom? Multi-Store Model of Memory The multi-store model of memory (eg, Atkinson and Shiffrin 1968) claims the memory can be sectioned into three distinctive parts: sensory store, short-term store (STM) and long-term store (LTM). Eysenck and Keane (2005:190) states that data is first encountered by the sensory store, then depending on the attention given, is processed to the STM and finally - if rehearsed - continues to the LTM. There is substantial research backing this model. For example Murdock (1962) found the serial position effect which shows when presented with a list of items, participants recalled those shown at the beginning (primary) and those at the end (recency);Show MoreRelatedReliability of the Human Memory1339 Words   |  5 PagesReliability of the human memory in eyewitness memory In this essay it will be argued how the human memory for recalling details of past events is not reliably accurate and that it will be interpreted through the reliability of memory in eyewitness memory and testimony. The human memory is a complex finding in the cognitive research of psychology, which can be explained by many different contributing factors but eyewitness is dependent upon the accuracy of long-term memory. However, research evidence suggestsRead MoreHuman Memory: a Passive Mechanism or Dynamic System? Essay2709 Words   |  11 PagesMemory is a capacity that humans rely upon to relate to different events, experiences, conditions, and people. It is a vitally important process and system whereby the brain receives information from (external or internal) stimuli, stores it (encoding), and makes it available on a future occasion (retrieval). It provides continuity to people’s experiences across different periods of time. Research is increasingly concluding that the brain works as an integrated whole rather than a series of discreteRead MoreDiscuss the Reliability of One Cognitive Process1807 Words   |  8 PagesOne Cognitive Process Memory is an example of a cognitive process, in other words it is a process by which knowledge is gained. This essay will attempt to explain the internal processes which are involved in memory and try to determine whether or not our memories as mental process of knowing, reasoning and judging can be considered reliable sources of information. First of all, memory is defined as the process of retaining and recalling past events or experiences. Memory is not however, like a

Needless Animal Research, Testing, and Experimentation is...

Needless Animal Experimentation is Wrong If penicillin had been tested on guinea pigs, it might never have reached the public. It is lethal to guinea pigs, deactivates the blood system of rabbits and is deadly to cats (Bio-Medical Research). Scientists are pushing for more experiments regardless of the cost to the animals life. One expense is the involvement of killing animals in the pursuit of a pine-scented air freshener(Vergoth,p21). Animals suffering in experimentation labs are in just and cruel to animals. It is wrong to harm an innocent animal of any wrong doing, when the animal doesnt know right from wrong. It is argued that people have an obligation to animals, so that we can protect their welfare. Charles†¦show more content†¦More than five billion dollars of federal tax revenue are spent annually on animal research (Bio-Medical Research). With that money there could be drug rehabilitation programs, nutrition counseling for the disadvantaged, or even improving water and air quality; but instead animals get experimented on. Animals, like the rest of nature, were understood not have any sort of value, except to bring enjoyment to lives. Animal life has some value (Frey, p27). Scientists test products on animals to see if they are safe, or if any side effects may occur. Many different companies use tests on animals, such as: the Draize Test and the LD-50, or Lethal Dose 50 Percent. The Draize Test is used to measure the harmfulness of chemicals found in household products and cosmetics, by observing the damage they cause to the eyes and skin of animals (Product Testing). Albino rabbits are used for the eye irritancy of a solution. The rabbits suffer extreme pain, mutilation and blindness. Often the rabbits eyes are held open with metal clips. The damage to their eyes are irreparable and leave the eyes ulcerated and bleeding. At the end of the test, the animals are killed to see what the internal effects were (Product Testing). The Lethal Dose 50 Test kills half of the test group. This test was developed in the 1920s, and is used to measure the acute toxicity of certain ingredients. This test uses 200 animals or more, and the animals sufferShow MoreRelatedAnimal Testing Should Not Be Banned1721 Words   |  7 Pages † Today, more animals are being used in experiments than ever before: around 100 million in the United States alone† (3). Animal testing is now an international issue, and it is becoming a major story. Currently, animals are often used in medical testing, make-up testing, and other consumer product testing. Animals used in such product testing are often abused and suffer from serious side-effects. Animal testing can be painful for the animals, testing results are usually not even useable forRead MoreAnimal Testing : Is It Right?912 Words   |  4 PagesAnimal Testing: is it Right? Animal testing, also known as animal experimentation, or animal research, is the use of non-human animals in experiments. While most people think animal testing is necessary, others are upset by what they see as needless suffering. Experimentation on animals help scientists increase knowledge about the way the human body works. Animal research can also expand the knowledge of biological, medical, psychological studies, and has led to vaccines against smallpox, measlesRead MoreAnimal Testing As A Tool For Growth Among Many Industries1358 Words   |  6 PagesSince you were born animal testing was used in your everyday products. The Pampers, Band-Aids, and Visine you purchased were all animal tested products. Every year, millions of animals go through painful experiments usually resulting in death. Normally, scientists use animals to determine and refine a variety of drugs, vaccines, cosmetics, and other chemicals. In the past 50 years, the United States used animal testing as a tool for growth among many industries. With 80 million animals painfully killedRead MoreAnimal Testing: The Future of Pharmaceuticals Essay1237 Words   |  5 Pagesthrough animal testing, they have been donned to be unsafe for people and environment. Without animal testing, the general public would still be using these hazardous chemicals. Many humanitarians may be opposed to testing chemicals on animals, but if scientists didn’t test on animals, individuals would have to test the deadly chemicals or live in a world where people don’t know if the chemicals they are using are poisonous and lethal to the human society. Animal testing may be wrong in someRead More Its Time to Stop Animal Research, Testing, and Experimentation1594 Words   |  7 PagesTime to Stop Animal Research, Testing, and Experimentation    Using animals in research and to test the safety of products has been a topic of heated debate for decades. According to data collected by F. Barbara Orlans for her book, In the Name of Science: Issues in Responsible Animal Experimentation, sixty percent of all animals used in testing are used in biomedical research and product-safety testing (62). People have different feelings for animals; many look upon animals as companionsRead MoreAnimal Experimentation Is Unnecessary and Cruel Essay946 Words   |  4 Pagesmillions of animals suffer through painful and unnecessary tests. Animals in laboratories all over the world live lives of deprivation, pain, isolation, and torture. Even though vast studies show that animal experimentation often lacks validity, leading to harmful human reactions, we still continue to use this method of experimentation, while many other less-expensive and more beneficial alternatives exist. Going beyond the issue of animal experimentation being morally wrong, this form of research is alsoRead MoreThe Effects Of Animal Cruelty1691 Words   |  7 PagesAnimal cruelty has become a problem, it is causing harm to the animals lives. Animal Cruelty is the suffering of an animal, whether it is caused on purpose or not. There are other things that are cruel to animals, such as the testing of animals. These animals have no protection by law, which means they can be used for any testing. This is unacceptable, unfair, and cruel that these animals have to be used in testing. Animals are just as important as humans. Their are those who believe that it is okayRead MoreAnimal Testing : Critical Thinking2384 Words   |  10 Pages Animal Testing Nicole Mayo PHIL250: Critical Thinking Mr. Alex Sparrow Bryant Stratton College July 5, 2014 Abstract Experimenters use animals to test drugs, household products, cosmetics and chemicals to assess their safety for use with humans. Mixtures of tests are sometimes very painful and stressful for animals and many of them resulting in the animal’s death. Due to the diversity in the biological make-up of animals, outcome from animal testing are not always relevant toRead More Animal testing Essay1964 Words   |  8 Pagescomes to animals and their rights, there is a definite line between our needs and our taking advantage of those species that we consider inferior. As long as man has existed he has been carnivorous, and the same holds true for many other species of animals. Animals are a necessity to humans for survival, whether it be for food, clothing, etc. However, the unnecessary torture of animals through testing is not a necessity for human survival. When it comes to the needless torture of animals that we claimRead More Animal Rights Essay2196 Words   |  9 Pagesour relationship with animals is the use of animals in laboratory sciences. Some manufactures of cosmetics and household products still conduct painful and useless tests on live animals, even though no law requires them to do so. Some people, called anti-vivisectionists, are at one extreme in their concern. They want an abolition of all experiments on live animals. At the other extreme there are those who say that it is quite all right for us to do whatever we like to animals. They say that God gave

Social Biases free essay sample

Dr. Deirdre Teaford Abstract People behave differently toward other culture and groups and discriminate in many forms of social bias. These biases can impact harshly an individuals career and social life. Discrimination, prejudice, and stereotypes can influence adversely an individuals quality of life. The concept is more prevalent in society that most people realize. This problem could be unfavorable to group cohesion, cooperation, and the success of society. Humans prefer to go with the flow of a crowd. When an idea is chosen by the masses (an entire nations or a small group), the individualized brain enters a kind of hive mind mentality. This causes social norms and behaviors to propagate among the individuals regardless of the evidence in support. This type of social bias is built with the desire to conform or fit in. Social biases have been a barrier humans have experienced from generation to generation. They take short cuts to make sense of the world. We will write a custom essay sample on Social Biases or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Humans have made rash decisions or discriminatory practices based on gender, race, ethnicity, religious affiliation, political preferences, and socioeconomic tatus. Humans have become fallible and has been subjected to their many flaws by making errors in Judgment, memory, and social attribution. Social psychologists have claimed these biases can be eliminated if the individuals have the motivation and capacity to change their attitude. According to Fiske (2010), Some people think bias is a thing of the past, and others think it is a real and present danger that targets diverse social groups (p. 28). Moreover, there are subtle and obvious misunderstandings among groups of individuals that affects the bias of people in heir lives, but strategies for change are possible (Fiske, 2010). In this analysis, the concept of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination will be defined. In the same aspect, the analysis will describe the differences between blatant and subtle bias while identifyi ng some common biases that may affect the lives of individuals and Stereotyping, and Discrimination Gender and ethnic stereotypes are inevitable. In the context of affirmative action, the inevitability has played an important practical implication. One arguments against affirmative action is that employers and educational administrators should be ender-blind and colorblind in their hiring and recruiting process (Stewart, Weeks, Lupfer, 2003). Individuals are often hurt by discriminatory and prejudicial behaviors and attitudes. The current laws cannot halt prejudicial or stereotyping attitudes, but they can address instances of discrimination. Discrimination, stereotyping, and prejudice are somewhat similar, but they are very different. Prejudice The operational definition involves reacting fervently to an individual on the basis of ones feelings about the group (Fiske, 2010). It is a belief that formulated without considering the facts. It is also an unwarranted or negative attitude toward a person based on his or her association of a social group. Stereotyping The operational definition entails an individuals cognitive associations and expectations about a group. These expectations will encompass the beliefs about the characteristics of a group (Fiske, 2010). Moreover, it is an indiscriminate belief about a class of people or particular group. Advantage: It allows the individual to respond hastily to certain situations because he or she may had a related experience. Disadvantage: It will make us ignore the differences between people. Discrimination The operational definition involves acting on the basis of ones prejudices and stereotypes, rebuffing equality of treatment that individuals wish to have (Fiske, 2010). Moreover, it is the negative behavior, or actions toward a group of people or individual on the basis of social/race/gender class. In this context, discrimination can be either blatant or subtle. Subtle and Blatant Bias In the last two decades, there is no doubt that women have made strides in the fight for equality. Many can recognize that women have overcome the many prejudices against their participation in the workforce (Earnshaw, 1993). In our society, blatant bias is being replaced by subtle bias to decrease the broad- mindedness for obviously biased behavior. Subtle bias is also acknowledged as modern prejudice. This does not mean that women do not get discriminated at work even though they have achieved equality of opportunity (Earnshaw, 1993). The first generation bias was more hostile towards women who needed to be in home with the children. On this second generation bias, for example, women may get more narrative praise than the male co-workers but low rating point related to Job performance (Earnshaw, 1993). Subtle Bias This particular modern bias is indirect and is manifested by withholding respect and sympathy. It is ambiguous and sometimes involves positive and hostile feelings that can cause extreme responses (Fiske, 2010). Blatant Bias This old-fashioned bias ensues as a result of threats to the struggle for positive group identity. They include segregation, physical attack, extermination, avoidance, opinion clearly in regard to a particular individual or group. Impact of Social Bias The lives of individuals can be influenced by social biases. Negative outcomes like neglect, hostile environment, or avoidance may be created by discrimination. When a biased individual interacts with an outgroup members, the expressed behavior of the individual will solicit negative and ill attitudes. Prejudice will influence the individuals lives with instances of ageism, sexism, and racism that will affect their career and social life. According to Vaish, Grossman, and Woodward (2008), When adults display a negative bias across an array of psychological situations, they will use the negative information instead of the positive one (p. 383). Moreover, the negativity bias may serves as an evolutionary adaptive purpose of helping individuals afely explore and examine the environment to avoid harmful situations (Vaish et. al. , 2008). Two Strategies to Overcome Social Biases There are several strategies to minimize social biases, such as affirmative action, and equal opportunity laws. The majority of these strategies involve constant intergroup contact. The key term for a biased individual is change. Old habits die hard but and individual can break those habits. According to Fiske (2010), Intergroup contact and mutual differentiation are two possible strategies to minimize the bias. Intergroup Contact These are interactions between members of different social groups. During the contact, there is equal status in the groups, there are common goals, and there is no competition but cooperation. They are not easy to meet, but they make complete sense (Fiske, 2010). Mutual Differentiation In this context, mutual differentiation is important for two reasons: (1) People retain awareness of individuals social identity in the contact situation, and (2) Individuals seem typical in the sense that they represent their own groups (Fiske, 2010). In Conclusion The motivation of change is the key to steer away from social biases. The bias will be the individuals preference toward a peculiar way of viewing or thinking omething. This behavior will be influenced by a certain prejudice.

Intervention Course Outline Essays - Psychometrics,

Intervention Course Outline Intervention Course outline: Chapter 1. The Disease of Chemical Dependency Test What we know about the Disease.Test How to Tell if someone you know is Chemically Dependent. Test Chapter One Test 10% of course Chapter 2. The Emotional Syndrome of Chemical Dependency.Test What we know about the Emotional SyndromeTest How Chemical Dependency Affects you.Test Chapter Two Test 10% of course Chapter 3. The Delusional System of Chemical Dependency..Test What we know about the Delusional System.Test How you become part of the Delusional System...Test Chapter Three Test 10% of course Chapter 4. Preparing for the Intervention.Test Conquering your own ReluctanceTest Gathering the Intervention TeamTest Gathering the Data...Test Rehearsing the InterventionTest Finalizing the detailsTest Should you seek Professional Help..Test Chapter Four Test 20% of course Chapter 5. Doing the InterventionTest An Intervention ScenarioTest What if the Intervention doesn't work..Test Getting help for yourself.Test Chapter Five Test 20% of course 500 word essay, with Introduction 20 % of course Completion of 2 mock interventions supervised 10% of course Psychology Essays

Benjamin Harrison - The 23rd President of the United States

Benjamin Harrison - The 23rd President of the United States Benjamin Harrison was the grandson of Americas ninth president, William Henry Harrison. He was a Civil War hero, having ended the was as a brigadier general. He dealt with civil service reform and fighting against monopolies and trusts while he was president. Following is a list of fast facts for Benjamin Harrison. For more in depth information, you can also read the Benjamin Harrison Biography Birth: August 20, 1833 Death: March 13, 1901 Term of Office: March 4, 1889-March 3, 1893 Number of Terms Elected: 1 Term First Lady: Caroline Lavinia Scott - She died of tuberculosis while he was in office. Caroline was key in building the Daughters of the American Revolution.   Benjamin Harrison Quote: Unlike many other people less happy, we give our devotion to a Government, to its Constitution, to its flag, and not to men.Additional Benjamin Harrison Quotes Major Events While in Office: Sherman Anti-Trust Act (1890)Sherman Silver Purchase Act (1890)Electricity Installed in White House (1891) States Entering Union While in Office: Montana (1889)Washington (1889)South Dakota (1889)North Dakota (1889)Wyoming (1890)Idaho (1890) Related Benjamin Harrison Resources: These additional resources on Benjamin Harrison can provide you with further information about the president and his times. Benjamin Harrison BiographyTake a more in depth look at the twenty-third president of the United States through this biography. Youll learn about his childhood, family, early career, and the major events of his administration. Chart of Presidents and Vice Presidents This informative chart gives quick reference information on the presidents, vice-presidents, their terms of office, and their political parties. Other Presidential Fast Facts: Grover ClevelandGrover ClevelandList of American Presidents

Green to Red Color Change Christmas Chemistry Demo

Green to Red Color Change Christmas Chemistry Demo Color-change demonstrations are classic fare for the chemistry classroom. The most common color change reaction may be the Blue Bottle (blue-clear-blue) chemistry demonstration and the Briggs-Rauscher oscillating clock (clear-amber-blue), but if you use different indicators you can get color-change reactions to suit just about any occasion. For example, you can perform a green-red-green color change reaction for a bit of Christmas chemistry. This color change demonstration uses the indigo carmine indicator. Christmas Color Change Demo Materials One of best parts of this demonstration is that you dont need very many ingredients: water (distilled is best, but you can use tap water if your pH is close to neutral)15 grams glucose7.5 grams sodium hydroxideindigo carmine indicatorbeakers or other clear containers Perform the Indigo Carmine Indicator Demo Prepare a 750 ml aqueous solution with 15 g glucose (solution A) and a 250 ml aqueous solution with 7.5 g sodium hydroxide (solution B).Warm solution A to around body temperature (98-100 °F).Add a pinch of indigo carmine, the disodium salt of indigo-5,5-disulphonic acid, to solution A. A pinch is enough indicator to make solution A visibly blue.Pour solution B into solution A. This will change the color from blue → green. Over time, this color will change from green → red/golden yellow.Pour this solution into an empty beaker, from a height of ~60 cm. Vigorous pouring from a height is essential in order to dissolve oxygen from the air into the solution. This should return the color to green.Once again, the color will return to red/golden yellow. The demonstration may be repeated several times. How Indigo Carmine Works Indigo carmine, also known as  5,5-indigodisulfonic acid sodium salt,  indigotine,  FDC Blue #2), has the  chemical formula is  C16H8N2Na2O8S2. It is used as a food coloring agent and as  a pH indicator. For chemistry, the purple salt is typically prepared as a 0.2% aqueous solution. Under these conditions, the solution is blue at pH 11.4 and yellow at pH 13.0. The molecule may also be used as a redox indicator, since it turns yellow when it is reduced. Other colors may be produced, depending on the specific reaction. Other uses of indigo carmine include dissolved ozone detection, as a dye for foods and medications, to detect amniotic fluid leaks in obstetrics, and as an intravenous dye to map the urinary tract. Health and Safety Information Indigo carmine may be harmful if inhaled. Avoid contact with the eyes or skin, which can cause irritation. Sodium hydroxide is a strong base that can cause irritation and burns. So, wear use care and wear gloves, a lab coat, and goggles setting up the demonstration. The solution may be safely disposed of down the drain, with running water.

SOC 428 (Families, Delinquency, & Crimes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

SOC 428 (Families, Delinquency, & Crimes - Essay Example The impact of working mothers on childcare and development of young children is even greater. With less time to spend together as a family, the development of children is then influenced to an even greater extent on external factors outside the family circle. The school environment, the social interaction with other children in the neighborhood, participation in local clubs and societies etc. take on a bigger role in shaping the social character of the child and extent, if any, of an inclination towards antisocial behaviors. The importance of greater time for social interaction of parents with their children in the context of the relationship between family variables and child behavior is discussed in Family Process journal1, wherein it states that â€Å"although a diversity of factors may be associated with the development and maintenance of conduct/oppositional disorders in children, of primary importance are the moment-to-moment interactions that the child has with his or her primary caregivers.† It is an unfortunate present day reality that in many families, parents do not spend sufficient time with their children as they used to, usually due to work commitments. So it is no surprise that they acquire habits, attitudes and behaviors from elsewhere that prove detrimental to their future lives. As far as the effects of the neighborhood is concerned on family processes, especially in the absence of sufficient parental involvement in the lives of their children, it too can be a significant factor. Emily and Daniel2 conducted a longitudinal study from toddlerhood to school entry of the impact of neighborhood disadvantage on early child overt behavior problems in a low-income, urban sample of 281 African American and European American boys. Neighborhood effects on boys behavior emerged, albeit only at age 6 at the extreme of neighborhood disadvantage. Findings suggested that boys in underclass

To what extent is migrant integration determined by formal and Essay

To what extent is migrant integration determined by formal and substantial citizenship - Essay Example Prior to an analysis of the subject, it is critical to describe the key terms in the paper. Literature defines migrant integration as the extent to which migrants are like the rest of the population. This may be seen through social economic indications like education, employment, housing and health. Alternatively, it may be manifested through cultural indicators like language, values, lifestyles and allegiances. Citizenship is the relationship one has between himself or herself and the state; it is political, civil, social, economic, cultural and symbolic. Formal citizenship focuses strictly on rights and duties that arise from one’s membership status within the state. Substantial citizenship refers to the economic, moral, and social resources to exercise rights .The phenomenon encompasses the lived experiences and the extent to which these rights are exercised. It is subjective and dwells on the social exchanges and interactions of people. These definitions thus indicate that having citizenship rights and putting into practice those rights enable social integration. If a migrant has access to citizens’ rights, they are more likely to bond with members of that community and demonstrate allegiance to it. Whether migrant integration is determined by formal and substantial citizenship Openness and inclusiveness as a precondition of migrant integration As mentioned in the introduction, formal citizenship encompasses the resources required to exercise citizenship rights. One dimension of these resources is the social dimension. A society’s value system can determine how effectively a migrant integrates with the larger society. If upon citizenship acquisition, they find that their society tolerates cultural diversity, then they are likely to deliberately choose integration (Berry, 1997). It should be noted that integration may be considered as one of four dimensions of migrant acculturation. Foreigners have the choice to assimilate, where they ab andon all their former cultures and adopt the ones in their host country. Conversely, they may choose to separate, where they hold onto their original cultures and ignore that of the dominant community. They may integrate by maintaining cultural ties in their native communities and adopting cultures from the receiving community. Alternatively, individuals in this group may lose ties with their former culture and also fail to adopt the culture of the dominant group; as such, they will become marginalised. Therefore, the degree of integration of immigrants in this sense can only occur if a society has values that encourage multiculturalism. The attitudes prevalent in the receiving country must be positive towards these groups. A person may have formal rights as a citizen but when they meet social characteristics that do not enable realisation of these rights then they will not integrate into society. Berry (1997) notes that sometimes these attitudes may stem from the physical features of the group or other characteristics. As such, even though Koreans may have acquired formal

Capital from profit Essay Example for Free

Capital from profit Essay Describe the sources of internal and external finance, available to Barneys business.  There are two main ways that business can access financial resources:  1. Internal sources ( within the business)  This is the money you can get within the business:  Owners savings- I believe Barney has some money for himself if he is thinking to start a new business, because its the owners who are often invest in their company to cover the setting up costs. It might be the only source they available immediately for them as for sole traders like Barney, banks or other financial institution unlikely to offer a loan as there is too much risk involved, and if you have that kind of money it is really good for the business as you will not have to pay it back by monthly or pay an interest. Capital from profit- this will become available after the business set up and operating. Once they have run for certain time, they may make some profit to invest into the business to run or buy more stock or buy new machinery to grow the business  2. External sources (outside the business)  There are number of different external sources that business can get money from to help them to set up or invest in. Banks- they can offer loans, overdrafts and business account to businesses but you will have to have a good business plan to get it. Loans are not easy to get and might not be a good option for small business as you must pay it back with interest in certain amount of time and if the company goes down the owner will end up with huge debt. The choice I would suggest is the overdraft for him as it is flexible and you wont have to pay a penny unless it is used, there are some banks who offer interest free overdraft, if you can get it will be a win! Friends/Family- you can always seek for help from your friends and families and you can even offer them a share for return of their investment or just borrow some money from them to put towards the business if they are nice enough. I would say it is the best option of borrowing money as you dont pay interest and it is your family they will not give you to court unless you run with their money. Government grants- these are available from the EU, national/local government. A grant is money you can receive as a business man; a good thing about it is that you dont have to pay it back. If Barney falls under the age group of 18-30 he can get a low interest loan from Princes Trust.  (a) The purpose of budgets, and how they can be used to monitor and control the performance of Barneys business, including, the monitoring of actual performance against budget and the use of variance analysis. Budget is a written plan with spending which will occur and a revenue that is need in the future to cover these costs. The purpose of it is it gives you clear understanding of what to expect to spend/receive in the future (coming year) to prevent or act any crisis before it happens. It also can be used as a communication between the employees to understand the objectives of the business and work towards it. For owners they can see how well their managers managing the budget plan and performance of them.

Paula Fass Outside In Essay -- Teaching Education Essays

Paula Fass' Outside In In Outside In, Paula Fass asserts that the form and function American education has been determined by the equilibrium between two predominate goals and ideals of education— to create a unified society with common values and beliefs (ecclesiastical objective) and to nurture the individual potential of each student by observing the individual needs and desires that students bring to public instruction (liberal objective). . The author aims to illuminate the tension that exists today between these two objectives by exploring how American education served â€Å"the other† throughout the first half of the twentieth century. Fass’s definition of the â€Å"other† includes those groups â€Å"outside the power networks that organized school systems and ran school organizations†(9). Outside In focuses on four groups in particular—immigrants, blacks, women, and Catholics. The experience each group brings a unique perspective to the evolving state of American education during this time period. Fass places most emphasis on the role of immigration and industrialization in the development of the aspirations, tensions and paradoxes of American education. In many ways, the problem of the immigrant at the turn of the 20th century gave birth to the ecclesiastical and liberal objectives of education. Before the development of the industrial age, an individual’s employment provided an important socializing experience. Industrialization greatly expanded employment opportunities, but the work was often brute manual labor with little educational value. Fass summarizes the reformist opinion of the time to be that â€Å"industrial labor failed to fit an older framework of socialization and did not serve as a force for social cohesion†(18).... ...sts discovered when they tried to cater to the individual needs of immigrants, to emphasize one objective is to sacrifice the other. The plight of blacks and women in the first part of the 20th century suggests that even the noblest of philosophies are not guaranteed to serve individuals in practice. Further, federal intervention into education, such as with the No Child Left Behind Act, should give educators pause to question what educational oversights would cause the federal government to intervene in its historical role as protector of the overlooked and unnoticed. Finally, the success of Catholic schools in the 1950’s and 1960’s is suggestive of the value of a standard, academic curriculum, but one must remember that Catholic schools enjoy the luxury of choosing the students they educate. Works Cited: Fass, Paula. Outside In New York: Oxford Press, 1989

American Popular Culture and Advertisement

In this essay I will describe the impact that popular American culture has had on my personal decision making, by briefly describing popular American culture; identifying patterns in my list of popular culture artifacts from my inventory, describing which items are more common than others, identify which themes are prevalent, and describing some of the values being communicated by the items in my list. American popular culture can be describes as the ideas, attitudes, and perspectives within the current mainstream of the American population. Popular culture here in American is heavily influenced by the mass media which saturates the lives of our society. This mass culture can been viewed as a commercial culture, mass produced for mass consumption and has expressed itself through almost every medium, like music, movies, politics and even sports like good old American Baseball; although it easily absorbs many others cultural traditions like soccer which originated from England, and yoga which is said to be as old as civilization itself. Some of the patterns of the items in my list of artifacts are those of consumption, and there are other artifacts that are just to sell an idea or service. What is obvious in each of the themes in my list of artifacts is that they are designed to grab your attention, and those that are more common than others are the magazines, billboards, and television. They are all conveniently displayed while waiting for your appointment, getting gas for your car or just waiting at a stop light on the way to your destination. These artifacts entice, seduce and focus on pleasure or some type of social responsibility like the billboards asking anyone to assist the LAPD to identify the women who were murdered by the â€Å"grim sleeper. † The extent to which I feel that the value of popular American culture has had on my personal decision making is great. I watch television to keep up with current events for socializing with others and feeling a part of, I listen to music for the same reason, and many of the decisions I make as an American is to feel a part of American culture. I am very aware of the impact that the influence of this popular culture has on my decision making, how I am seduced to buy a product from an infomercial that states I can look younger, or remove any flaws I may have or lose excess pounds of weight, knowing that I will be billed for much more than they advertised. I am quite aware that I don’t need most of the items I find in the advertisements, but my vanity and wanting to be younger, better, thinner, or even have more money, the seduction draws me in and consciously fall into place with many who assimilate to this hegemonic culture feeling like I am doing what I am supposed to do.

Learning outcome Essay

1.1 explain own role and responsibilities and boundaries of own role as a teacher . Write a essay explain the your role and responsibilities including the limits of your teaching role. Word limited (200) 1.2 Identify key aspects of relevant current legislative requirements and codes of practice within a specific context -The student will write a essay explaining the NEW STANDARDS FOR TEACHERS AND TRAINERS. Explaining the new standards expected, including details of Health and Safety. – Make a list of location where you can research changes to your subject topic including details of location and the method of research. 1.3 identify other points of referral available to meet the potential needs of students -Draw a mind map for your preferred learning style and include it within your portfolio. 1.4 identify issues of equality and diversity and ways to promote inclusion -Define equality and diversity. -What does the term inclusive mean? (100 words) – Place copies of equal opportunities policies from a number of companies if your company does not have any. -Write a short essay explaining the importance to address the issues of qualify , diversity and inclusion within your training area. (200 word) 1.5 Explain the need of record keeping. Write a reflective piece explaining how you feel about keeping paper work and record keeping. (200) 2.0 understand appropriate teaching and learning approaches in the specialist area. 2.1 Identify and demonstrate relevant approaches for a specialist teaching area. -Write a brief essay explaining the approaches for a specialist teaching area. (200) 2.2 Explain ways to embed elements of functional skills in the specialist area. -With reference to an experience teacher you have previously observed in your specialist area. Explain how your teacher can keep up to date with their teaching practice in their specialist teaching area? How can your teaching incorporate communication and numeracy? 2.3 Justify the selection of teaching and learning approaches for a specialist session. in reflective piece explain a teaching session that you have delivered and the reason you have used a teaching approached. If you are not teaching currently, explain a teaching approach that you have seen for a spe cific session. 3.0 Demonstrate session planning skills. 3.1 Plan a teaching and learning session which meets the needs of individual students. -complete a full teaching plan for the micro teaching session. (presentation) 3.2 Justify selection of resources for a specific session. -Write a brief essay of (100) explaining the reason for the use of specific resources within your teaching session. 4 Understand how to deliver inclusive sessions which motivate students. 4.1 Explain ways to establish ground rules with students which underpin appropriate behavior and respect for others. Write a brief statement explaining methods of establishing clear ground rules . Give a examples of a ground rules list. 4.2 use a range of appropriate and effective teaching and learning approaches to engage and motivate students. Feedback sheets for other students 4.3 Explain and demonstrate good practice in give feedback Complete a essay explaining good practice and examples of bad practice. 4.4 Communicate appropriately and effectively with students. – copy of the feedback from lead instructions and internal Verifier. 4.5 Reflect on and evaluate the effectiveness of own teaching. Complete a reflection on the effective of the teaching method used and the ways you can improve your teaching practices. 5 understand the use of different assessment methods and the need of record keeping. 5.1 Identify different assessment methods -Write a reflection piece on the type of assessment you have experienced during your training time and school experience and the methods that have been effective and ineffective. (200 words) 5.2 Explain the use of assessment methods in different contexts, including reference to initial assessment. -Write a essay explaining the use of assessment methods and the different times you would use this method including details of initial assessment prior to starting a course. Including details of the types of assessment that are suitable for different areas. How can you use this assessment techniques be used to assessment learner progress. 5.3 Explain the need for record keeping in relation to assessment. -Briefly explain the need for record keeping due to the fact and relationship of the awarding bodies and the requirement of tractability of all document and processes.

Definition and Examples of Letters as Symbols

Definition and Examples of Letters as Symbols A letter is an alphabetic symbol such as A or a. There are 26 letters in the modern English alphabet. Among the world’s languages, the number of letters ranges from 12 in the Hawaiian alphabet to 231 principal characters in the Ethiopian syllabary. Etymology From the Latin, shape or symbol used in writing The Efficiency of the Alphabet Because letters work at the phonemic level and are unencumbered by any extra baggage of sound, they achieve maximum efficiency. Our six letters of pencil can easily be broken out and rearranged within countless other wordslien, Nile, stipend, clip,that sound nothing like pencil. Letters are the original snap-on tools: They build on each other as necessary, so you actually need fewer items in your toolkit. With 26, we capture reasonably well the approximately 500,000 words of English.(David Sacks, Letter Perfect: The Marvelous Story of Our Alphabet From A to Z. Broadway, 2004) The History of Letters From A to BThe symbol A indicated in Semitic a glottal consonant that did not exist in Greek. Its Semitic name was aleph, the initial apostrophe here indicating the consonant in question; and, because the name means ox, it has been thought to represent an oxs head, though interpreting many of the Semitic signs as pictorial characters presents as yet insuperable difficulties (Gelb 1963, pp. 140-41).   By ignoring the initial Semitic consonant of the letters name, the Greeks adopted this symbol as a vowel, which they called alpha. Beta  was ultimately somewhat modified in form to B by the Greeks, who wrote it and other reversible letters facing in either direction; in the early days of writing they wrote from right to left, as the Semitic peoples usually did and as the Hebrew is still written. From the Greek modifications of the Semitic names of the first two letters, the word alphabet is ultimately derived.(Thomas Pyles and John Algeo, The Origins and Development of the English La nguage, 3rd ed., 1982) The Roman Alphabet in Old English and Middle English [A]  linguistic connection between the Anglo-Saxons  who settled in the British Isles and other Germanic tribes is their use of the runic alphabet, developed on the continent for scratching short messages onto wood or stone. But runic writing had only a limited use in Britain; the conversion to Christianity brought with it the Roman alphabet, which was established as the principal medium for Old English written  records. Because it was devised for writing Latin rather  than English, the Roman alphabet was not a perfect fit for the Old English sound system. Latin had no th sound and consequently no letter to represent it; to fill this gap the Anglo Saxons imported  the letter thorn, à ¾, from the runic alphabet. This letter remained in use for writing English until the fifteenth century, when it developed a y-shaped appearance; it now survives in this modified form in faux archaic ye olde tea shoppe signs, where ye should properly be pronounced the.​(Simon Horobin,  How English Became English. Oxford University Press, 2016) The Lighter Side of Letters Im good friends with 25 letters of the alphabet. I dont know Y.(Comedian Chris Turner, quoted by Mark Brown in Edinburgh Fringes 10 Funniest Jokes Revealed. The Guardian, August 20, 2012)

How Research-Driven Marketing Generates Demand With Michele Linn

How Research-Driven Marketing Generates Demand With Michele Linn Can a well-researched piece of content from a single URL help bring in millions of views in just one year? The answer is, â€Å"Yes.† knows exactly how that feels. Researched content helps you drive 10X results that convert into profitable customer action. Today, we’re talking to Michele Linn, who knows everything about research-driven content marketing. She is the co-founder and chief strategy officer at Mantis Research. Michele has amazing advice to offer on how to succeed at content marketing. Research is crucial for content marketing; people want to find data that supports their thoughts and beliefs; become the authoritative source for some type of topic Examples of research include ’s State of Marketing Strategy Report, and research reports from Salesforce and Robert Half Find new ideas for your audience/niche by conducting a survey, or looking for a stat that people believe but is not backed up by data Audiences that care most about research-based content are those in a new industry to gain justification, and on social media that like to share stats Importance of research-driven content to prove or disprove something Targeting Topics: Is it something that’s interesting to your audience? Does it align with your brand’s story? Is there other research available on this topic? Research can be time consuming, about 4-6 months; but it is worth the effort Research can be a guiding force and the glue that holds your story and editorial strategy together Pitching researched content to justify time spent; what does client care about? Content to produce results; start out small, don’t do too much at once Tools and processes work well to gather research; try surveys and secondary research; determine sample size to be considered representative and valid Metrics to measure for success include media mentions, impressions of research, leads, downloads, email subscribers, and backlinks Research Process: 1) Strategy and planning, 2) Data science, 3) Compile data and turn into story, 4) Incorporate research into blogs, infographs, videos, etc. Links: Mantis Research Content Marketing Institute Ultimate Guide: How to Publish Survey-Based Research for Content Marketing State of Marketing Strategy Report Salesforce Robert Half Andy Crestodina DivvyHQ Andrea Fryrear SurveyGizmo Write and send a review to receive a care package If you liked today’s show, please subscribe on iTunes to The Actionable Content Marketing Podcast! The podcast is also available on SoundCloud, Stitcher, and Google Play. Quotes by Michele Linn: â€Å"What we are trying to do with marketers is help them publish their own original research.† â€Å"Research is a real opportunity because you and your brand become the authoritative source for some type of topic.† â€Å"I think it can work for a lot of different industries, you just have to figure out what your audience truly cares about.† â€Å"When you have research, it really can be that guiding force and that glue that holds your whole story and your whole editorial strategy together.†

Strategic Management business organization Essay

Strategic Management business organization - Essay Example It is highly important that the company designs and executes a specific strategy, as it will be the master plan with which it will pattern all its strategic moves and actions. Lack of a specific strategy is a "surefire ticket for organizational drift, competitive mediocrity, internal wheel-spinning and lackluster results (Thomson 2002)." Second, Thomson argues that business entities need to devise and implement strategies, as the efforts of all the functional areas in the company should be molded into a "coordinated, compatible whole." A comprehensive strategy takes all the business units into account making each action mutually supportive. Without a well-laid out strategic plan, there will be no basis for uniting the efforts of all the functional areas, no clear direction on the business decisions and plans that the business takes, and no conscious business model for profit generation. Kotler has argued that business entities are currently operating on hypercompetitive environment which is characterized by more stringent competition and higher buyer leverage. In this kind of situation, strategic management becomes more instrumental in the success and even mere survival of company. This report argues that strategic management directly and strongly affects the performance of an organisation. By organizational performance we refer to the ability of an organization to use its resources efficiently and to produce outputs that are consistent with its goals. This in order for an organisation to measure its performance, it must first establish a set of goals and objectives that it wants to achieve to use as benchmark with its actual performance. Setting the company's direction will enable managers know where the company is heading as well as the strategies to be employed in order to for the company to achieve what it wants to become. Consequently, organisational performance is often dependent on how well the company handling its strategic management. By employing the tools devised for strategic management, a company is able to gain significant information about its external and internal environment, enabling it to tailor a strategy to align its strengths with opportunities. Formulating the right strategy will enable the company to enhance its organizational performance. Strategic management is therefore one of the most crucial areas in management. Coming up with a specific strategy, which will be the basis of company's actions, processes and decisions is a must. A well-crafted strategy is indispensable to the company's performance and long-term success. It is therefore important that a business entity comes up with a unique strategy tailored for the achievement of its goals and objectives. Devising a purposeful and efficient strategy is a tedious task and managers should be armed with different techniques in diagnosing the company in order to prescribe the "right" strategy. The next section will look at the different models which are employed to aid managers in this strategy making process. PESTEL stands for Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Environmental, and

Ethical Issues in HRM Strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Ethical Issues in HRM Strategy - Essay Example Thus, the rewards of practicing effective HRM practices are inevitable just as the dire consequences of sidestepping HRM principles are sure. Question 1 The area that overlaps in the new client organization with others that I have served in has to do with organizational performance. Herein, other areas such as creating a feasible performance target, carrying out performance appraisal, and establishing the best way for sealing performance gap emerge. This overlap is underpinned by the fact that performance is the main reason for general organization existence. Creating a performance target directly relates to all organization’s goals, vision and mission statement. Performance appraisal, on the other hand, will help determine whether an organization has hit its target or not, at the end of a fiscal year. Question 2 There are certain ethical issues that may accost the ratification of expert knowledge of other organizational HRM strategies with the new client. Particularly, the pr oposition that the client organization downsizes some of its staff to avoid redundancy and as part of closing the performance gap readily brings ethical concerns. This may mean that there are many who are going to forfeit their source of livelihood, their input in and experience with the client organization notwithstanding. Similarly, the signing of performance contracts may also underscore the ethical concern above since an employee’s security of tenure will be pegged on his performance. Conversely, persuading a part of the staff to embrace workshop and training programs may be an ethical challenge, given that some in this section may be older, both in terms of age and tenure in the client organization. At the same time, workshop drives and training programs may eat into employees’ private and family lives if study travels are involved (O'Higgins & Kelleher, 2005). Question 3 One of the best approaches to customizing HRM strategy to business strategies is the incorpor ation of HRM strategies into the business organization’s mission statement, objectives and strategy. By doing this, the business organization’s synergy will be extended and channeled towards the fulfillment of the client organization’s mission statement and long-term objectives. At the same time, the modus operandi that the business organization will be using is one that will be in tandem with HRM strategies. Some of these strategies that an organization may incorporate into its performance strategies may include the signing of performance contracts, introducing and observing workshop drives and training programs, and using behavioral techniques which portend the introduction of rewards (for diligent and committed employees) and punishment (for employees who consistently and knowingly disregard due diligence and proper workmanship) (Valentine & Hollingworth, 2012). As Caldwell and Truong (2011) suggest, another way by which HRM strategies can be customized to bu siness strategies is by making HRM strategies part of the organizational hierarchy. This means that the human resource manager must feature among other top echelons of the organization such as finance, marketing, corporate planning, supply chain management, sales and management. At the same

Dance used in marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Dance used in marketing - Essay Example Another reason for selecting dance for evaluation as a trend is because it has seemingly better reach to the audiences because it just not allows audiences to get entertained but also get awareness of the product. Some of the elements which have been specifically considered certain to this opinion paper are the constituents of this type of advertising. In other words, the musical interference of this advertising tool with the consciousness of the audiences has been marked as an informative aspect of the subject. The explanation of these elements and specific areas of the advertising tool have been done on the basis of its interference through TV commercials. There are other elements which have been notified throughout the opinion paper but the most important element which has been considered central to the evaluation of the advertising and marketing tool is sound element of dance as an advertising tool. In addition to the different elements which were chosen to breakdown the analysis of the trends of advertising, I used a number of books, artifacts and advertisements. These stimulus materials are easily accessible in the online databases. Some of the advertisements have also been attached below which gives a clear insight of how the dance is employed in advertising as a means to revive brand image in the mind of audiences. Special consideration was give to the ad entitled T-Mobile dance ad camping (see link below). These ads provide clear understanding of the ways dance is being used as the most effective way to built brand awareness which stays in the consciousness of audiences for longer period of time. In order to provide an illustrative yet interesting opinion on the subject of matter, I have employed careful skimming of ads which have employed dance as a tool for marketing. During the research for the ads which have employed dance technique to reach to the audience for the purpose of sharing awareness of the brands, there were a great a great deal of diffe rence in the presentation of the ads. Also, I had to skim down the ads using mechanism of categorization. There were marketing campaigns which employed dance as a competition for winning the hampers by the sponsored brand while on the other hand there was storyboard of the ads which were based upon expression through dance. By categorizing the ads, it became relatively easier for me to reflect on the dance tool of advertising. Furthermore, the expository reflection of the mechanism is evident in the book by Huntington (2011) which I have used in order to generate my opinions regarding the trends in advertising. Opinion Section: Marketing and advertisement are two exceptional and different forms of art that persuade people. Marketing and dancing forms are closely related in a sense that both are considered as vital expression of societal activities and these have a deep impact on societal members who intend to promote these art forms. Dance and techniques of marketing both are cognit ive in nature as they have great influence on psychological development of the people. In other words, it can be stated that advertising and dance are considered as the means of communication that divert attention of mass audience and create uniform passive thoughts in them. Use of dance in the advertisement is one of the most interesting and common approaches that contribute to grab an audience’s attention and interest in a more efficient manner today. Advertisement

Ap Psychology Review Packet Essay Example for Free

Ap Psychology Review Packet Essay Absolute Threshold:  the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time. 2. Accommodation:  the process by which the eyes lens changes shape to focus near or far images on the retina. 3. Acetylcholine:  neurotransmitter that enables muscle action, learning and memory. 4. Achievement Motivation:  desire for accomplishment. 5. Achievement Test:  an exam designed to test what a person has earned. 6. Acoustic Encoding:  encoding of sound, especially words. 7. Acquisition:  the initial stage when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus. 8. Action Potential:  a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. 9. Activation Synthesis:  theory that REM sleep triggers neural firing that evokes random images, which our sleep brain weaves into stories. 10. Adaptation Level Phenomenon:  tendency to form judgements relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience. 11. Adrenal Glands:  a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones that help arouse the body in times of stress. 12. Algorithm:  a methodical, logical rule that guarantees solving a particular problem. 3. Alpha Waves:  the relatively slow brain waves of an awake, relaxed state. 14. Amnesia:  loss of memory. 15. Amphetamines:  drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes. 16. Amygdala:  two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion. 17. Aphasia:  impairment of language caused by left hemisp here damage to Brocas area, impairing speaking, or Wernickes area, impairing understanding. 18. Applied Research:  scientific study that aims to solve practical problems 19. Aptitude Test:  designed to predict a persons future performance. 20. Association Areas:  areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary or sensory functions but in higher mental functions. 21. Associative Learning:  learning that certain events occur together. 22. Automatic Processing:  unconscious encoding of incidental information. 23. Autonomic Nervous System:  the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs. 24. Availability Heuristic:  estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory. 5. Axon:  the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles and glands. 26. B. F. Skinner:  a leading behaviorist; rejected introspection and studied how consequences shape behavior. 27. Babbling Stage:  begins at 4 months; stage of speech development in which infant spontaneously utters various sounds. 28. Barb ituates:  drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system,  reducing anxiety  but impairing memory and judgement. 29. Basal Metabolic Rate:  bodys resting rate of energy expenditure. 30. Basic Research:  pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base 31. Behavior Genetics:  the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior. 32. Behavioral Medicine:  integrates behavioral and medical knowledge to apply to health and disease. 33. Behaviorism:  the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental process. 34. Belief Perseverance:  clinging to ones initial conceptions after the basis has been discredited. 35. Binocular Cues:  depth cues such as retinal disparity that depend on using two eyes. 36. Bio-Feedback:  electronically recording, amplifying and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state. 37. Biological Psychology:  a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior. 38. Biopsychosocial Approach:  an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis. 39. Blind Spot:  the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a blind spot because no receptor cells are located there. 40. Bottom-Up Processing:  analysis that starts with the sensory receptors and works up to the brains integration of sensory information. 1. Brocas Area:  controls language expression; area of the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere. 42. Cannon-Baird Theory:  emotion arousing stimulus triggers physiological response and subjective experience of emotion. 43. Case Study:  an observational technique in which one person id studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal princi ples. 44. Central Nervous System:  the brain and spinal cord. 45. Cerebellum:  the little brain at the rear of the brainstem; processes sensory input and coordinates movement output and balance. 46. Cerebral Cortex:  the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the bodys ultimate control and information-processing center. 47. Change Blindness:  failing to notice changes in the environment 48. Charles Darwin:  argued that natural selection shapes behaviors as well as bodies. 49. Chunking:  organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically. 50. Circadian Rhythm:  the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle 51. Classical Conditioning:  one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate future events. 2. Clinical Psychology:  a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats psychological disorders. 53. Cochlea:  a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger neural impulses. 54. Cochlear Implant:  device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded throug h the cochlea. 55. Cognition:  Mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering and communicating. 56. Cognitive Map:  mental representation of the layout of ones environment. 57. Cognitive Neuroscience:  the interdisciplinary study of brain activity linked with cognition. 58. Cognitive Perspective:  how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information. 59. Color Constancy:  perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color either if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object. 60. Complementary Alternative Medicine:  unproven healthcare treatments intended to supplement conventional medicine. 61. Conditioned Reinforcer:  a stimulus that gains reinforcing power through its association with the primary reinforcer. 62. Conditioned Response:  the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus. 63. Conditioned Stimulus:  an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with US, triggers a response. 64. Conduction Hearing Loss:  hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea. 65. Cones:  retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and function in daylight of well-lit conditions. 66. Confirmation Bias:  a tendency to search for information that backs ones own beliefs. 67. Consciousness:  our awareness of ourselves and our environment. 68. Content Validity:  extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest, 69. Continuous Reinforcement:  reinforcing a desired response every time it occurs. 70. Control Group:  the group that is not exposed to the treatment in an experiment. 71. Coping:  alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods. 72. Corpus Callosum:  axon fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres. 73. Correlation:  a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. 74. Correlation Coefficient:  a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1) 75. Counseling Psychology:  a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living and in achieving greater well-being. 76. Critical Thinking:  thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. 77. Culture:  the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one culture to the next. 78. Delta Waves:  the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep. 79. Dendrite:  the bushy, branchy extensions of a neuron that receive message and conduct impulses towards the cell body. 0. Dependent Variable:  the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to the manipulation of the independent variable. 81. Depressants:  drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions. 82. Difference Threshold:  the minimum difference between stimuli required for detection 50% of the time. 83. Discrimination:  learned ability to distinguish between CS and stimuli that do not signal a US. 84. D issociation:  a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others. 85. Dopamine:  neurotransmitter that influences movement, learning, attention and emotion. 86. Double-Blind Procedure:  an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant as to whether the group has received a treatment or a placebo. 87. Drive-Reduction Theory:  physiological need; creates an aroused tension state, a drive, that motivates an organism to satisfy the need. 88. Dual Processing:  the principle that information is simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks 89. Echoic Memory:  momentary sensory memory of an auditory stimuli. 0. Ecstasy (MDMA):  a synthetic stimulant and a mild hallucinogen. Produces Euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurans and to mood and cognition. 91. Edward Titchener:  father of structuralism. 92. Effortful Processing:  encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. 93. Electroencepha logram (EEG):  an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brains surface. 94. Emotion:  response of the whole organism involving psychological arousal, expressive behavior and conscious experience. 95. Emotion-Focused Coping:  Attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs relating to ones stress. 96. Encoding:  the processing of information into the memory system by extracting meaning. 97. Endocrine System:  the bodys slow chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. 98. Endorphins:  morphine within natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure. 99. Environment:  every non-genetic influence. 100. ESP:  claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input. 101. Estrogen:  the primary female sex hormone. 102. Evolutionary Psychology:  the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection. 103. Experiment:  a research method in which an investigator manipulates one of more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process. 104. Experimental Group:  the group that is exposed to the treatment in an experiment. 105. Explicit Memory:  memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare; stored in hippocampus. 106. Extinction:  diminishing of CR; occurs in classical conditions when US does not follow CS. 07. Extrinsic Motivation:  desire to perform to receive rewards or avoid punishment. 108. Factor Analysis:  a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items, called factors, on a test. 109. Feature Detectors:  nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle or movement. 110. Feel-Good Do-Good Phenomena:  tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood. 111. Figure-Ground:  organization of visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings. 112. Fixation:  inability to see a problem from a new perspective. 113. Fixed-Interval Schedule:  reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified amount of time has elapsed. 114. Fixed-Ratio Schedule:  reinforcement schedule that reinforces only after specified number of responses. 115. Flashbulb Memory:  a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. 116. Flow:  a completely involved, focused state of consciousness resulting from optimal engagements of ones skills. 117. fMRI:  a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity shows brain function. 118. Fovea:  the central focal point in the retina, around which the eyes cones cluster. 19. Framing:  the way an issue is posed. 120. Fraternal Twins:  twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than a brother or sister. 121. Frequency:  the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time. 122. Frequency Theory:  in hearing, the theory that the rate of neural impulses traveling u p the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch. 123. Freuds Wish-fulfillment:  theory that dreams provide a psychic safety valve for expressing otherwise unacceptable feelings. 124. Frontal Lobes:  portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking, muscles movement, making plans and judgement. 125. Functional Fixedness:  the tendency to think of things only in their usual function. 126. Functionalism:  a school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function how they enable us to adapt, survive and flourish. 127. GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid):  a major inhibitory neurotransmitter. 128. Gate-Control Theory:  theory that spinal cord contains a neurological gate that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass to the brain. 29. Gender Identity:  our sense of being male or female. 130. Gender Role:  a set of expectations for either males or females. 131. Gender Typing:  the acquisition of a traditional male or female role. 132. General Adaptation Syndrome:  Selyes concept of bodys adaptive response to stress; alarm, resistance, exhaustion. 133. General Intelligence:  general intell igence factor, according to Spearman, underlies specific mental abilities and is measured by every task on an intelligence test. 134. Generalization:  tendency after response has been conditioned for similar stimuli to elicit similar responses. 135. Genome:  the complete instructions for making an organism. 136. Gestault:  organized whole; tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes. 137. Glial Cells:  cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons. 138. Glutamate:  a major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory. 139. Grouping:  perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups based on proximity, similarity, continuity and connectedness. 140. Hallucinations:  false sensory experiences. 141. Hallucinogens:  drugs taht distort perception and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input. 142. Health Psychology:  sub-field of psychology; provides psychologys contribution to behavioral medicine. 143. Heritability:  the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. 144. Heuristic:  a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make strategies and solve problems quickly. 145. Hierarchy of Needs:  Mazlows pyramid of human needs; begins with physiological needs which must be met before higher goals can be attained. 146. Higher-Order Conditioning:  procedure where conditioned stimulus in one experience is paired with a new, neutral stimulus, creating a new Conditioned Stimulus. 47. Hindsight Bias:  the tendency to believe that, after learning the outcome, one would have foreseen it. 148. Hippocampus:  a neural center that is located in the limbic system and helps process explicit memories for storage. 149. Homeostasis:  tendency to maintain a state of balance. 150. Hormones:  chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endo crine glands. 151. Hue:  the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of the light. 152. Humanistic Psychology:  historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individuals potential for personal growth. 53. Hypothalamus:  a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities, helps govern the endocrine system, and is linked to emotion and reward. 154. Hypothesis:  a testable prediction. 155. Iconic Memory:  a momentary sensory memory of a visual stimuli; a photographic memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second. 156. Identical Twins:  twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits into two, creating two genetically identical organisms. 157. Illusory correlation:  the perception of a relationship where none exists. 158. Implicit Memory:  retention independent of conscious recollection; stored in cerebellum. 159. Inattentional Blindness:  failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere 160. Incentive:  a positive or negative environmental stimulus. 161. Independent Variable:  the experimental factor which is directly manipulated. 162. Industrial Organizational Psychology:  using psychological concepts to optimize behavior in work places. 163. Information Processing:  theory that dreams help us sort out the days events and consolidate our memories. 164. Infradian Rhythm:  long-term cycle; greater than a day 65. Inner Ear:  the inner most part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs. 166. Insight:  sudden and novel realization of the solution to a problem. 167. Insomnia:  recurring problems in falling or staying asleep. 168. Instinct:  a complex behavior rigidly patterned throughout the species and is unlearned. 169. Int ensity:  the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we can perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the waves amplitude. 170. Interaction:  the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor depends on another. 171. Interneurons:  neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and the motor outputs. 172. Intrinsic Motivation:  desire to perform for its own sake. 173. Intuition:  effortless, immediate feeling or thought. 174. Iris:  a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening. 175. James-Lange Theory:  emotion is awareness of physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli. 176. Kinesthesis:  system for sensing the position and movement of individual body movements. 77. Latent Content:  according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream. 178. Latent Learning:  learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it. 179. Law of Effect:  Thorndikes principle that behavior followed by favorable consequences become more likely and behaviors followed by negative consequences become less likely. 180. Len s:  the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina. 181. Lesion:  destruction of the brain tissue. 182. Levels of Analysis:  the differing complementary views for analyzing any iven phenomenon. 183. Limbic System:  neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives. 184. Lingusitic Determinism:  Whorfs hypothesis that language determines the way we think. 185. Long-Term Memory:  relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. 186. Long-Term Potentiation (LTP):  increase in synapse-s firing potential after rapid stimulation; the neural basis for learning and memory. 187. LSD:  a powerful hallucinogenic drug; alsdo known as acid. 188. Lymphocytes:  the two types of white blood cells that are part of the immune system. 189. Manifest Content:  according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream. 190. Mean:  the arithmetic average of a distribution. 191. Median:  the middle score in a distribution. 192. Medulla:  the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing. 193. Mental Age:  measure of test performance devised by Binet; chronological age that typically correlates with a given age. 194. Mental Set:  tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, often one that has been successful. 195. Methamphetamine:  a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system and appears to drop base dopamine levels over time. 96. Middle Ear:  the chamber between the eardrum and the cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochleas oval window. 197. Mirror Neurons:  frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when performing another doing so; this may enable imitation or empathy. 198. Misinformation Effect:  incorporating misleading information into ones memory. 199. Mnemonics:  memory aids. 200. Mode:  the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution. 201. Modeling:  observing and imitating a specific behavior. 202. Monocular Cues:  depth cues available to either eye alone. Includes relative height, relative size, interposition, linear perspective, light and shadow, and relative motion. 203. Mood Congruent Memory:  tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with ones current mood. 204. Morpheme:  the smallest unit that carries meaning. 205. Motivation:  a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior. 206. Motor Cortex:  an area at the rear if the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements. 207. Motor Neurons:  neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands. 208. MRI:  a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. 209. Mutation:  a random error in gene replication that leads to a change. 210. Myelin Sheath:  a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed. 211. Narcolepsy:  a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times. 212. Natural Selection:  inherited trait variations contributing to survival and reproduction will be passed on to succeeding generations. 13. Naturalistic Observation:  observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation. 214. Nature-Nurture issue:  controversy over contributions of genes vs. experience 215. Near-death Experience:  an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death; often similar to dru g-induced hallucinations. 216. Negative Reinforcement:  increasing behaviors by stopping a negative stimuli. 217. Neo-Freudian Theory:  theory that dreams can be used as a coping mechanism to deal with past events. 218. Nerves:  bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs. 219. Nervous system:  the bodys speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems. 220. Neurogenesis:  the formation of new neurons. 221. Neuron:  a nerve cell; the basic building block of he nervous system. 222. Neurotransmitters:  chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. 223. Night Terrors:  a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified. 24. Norepinephrine:  neurotransmitter that helps control alertness and arousal. 225. Normal Curve:  a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data. 226. Observational Learning:  learning by observing others. 227. Occipital Lobes:  portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive informatio n from the visual fields 228. One-Word Stage:  from age 1 to 2; when a child speaks in single words. 229. Operant Behavior:  Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences. 230. Operant Chamber:  a chamber / Skinner Box containing a bar that an animal can manipulate to obtain water or food. 231. Operant Conditioning:  type of learning in which behavior is strengthened followed by a reinforcer or diminished followed by a punisher. 232. Operational Definition:  a statement of the procedures used to define research variables. 233. Opiates:  opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety. 234. Opponent-Process Theory:  the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. 35. Optic Nerve:  the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain. 236. Organizational Psychology:  part of IO Psychology; examines psychological influences o worker satisfaction and productivity. 237. Overconfidence:  tendency to be more confident than correct. 238. Parallel Processing:  the processing of many aspects of a problem simu ltaneously. 239. Parapsychology:  study of paranormal phenomena. 240. Parasympathetic Nervous System:  the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy. 241. Parathyroids:  help regulate the level of calcium in the blood 242. Parietal Lobes:  portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top/rear of the head; receives sensory input for touch and body position. 243. Partial/Intermittent Reinforcement:  Reinforcing a response only part of the time. 244. Perception:  the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events. 245. Perceptual Adaptation:  in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or inverted visual field. 246. Perceptual Set:  mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another. 247. Peripheral Nervous System:  the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body. 248. Personnel Psychology:  focuses on recruitment, selection and placement of employees. 249. PET Scan:  a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task. 250. Phoneme:  the smallest distinctive sound unit. 251. Physical Dependence:  a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued 252. Pitch:  a tones experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency. 53. Pituitary Gland:  the endocrine gland systems most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands. 254. Place Theory:  in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochleas membrane is stimulated. 255. Placebo Effect:  experimental results caused b y expectation alone. 256. Plasticity:  the brains ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage of by building new pathways based on experience 257. Polygraph:  lie detector machine; measures responses to emotion. 58. Pons:  part of the brainstem that helps coordinate movements. 259. Population:  all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples can be drawn. 260. Positive Reinforcement:  increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli. 261. Posthypnotic Suggestion:  a suggestion, made during a hypnotic session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized. 262. Predictive Validity:  the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict. 263. Primary Reinforcer:  an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need. 264. Priming:  the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing ones perception, memory, or response. 265. Pro-Social Behavior:  positive, constructive behavior. 266. Proactive Interference:  the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information. 267. Problem-Focused Coping:  attempting to alleviate stress by changing the stressor or how we interact with that stressor. 268. Prototype:  a mental image or best example of a category. 269. Pshchological Dependence:  a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions. 270. Psychiatry:  a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders. 271. Psychoactive Drug:  a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods. 272. Psychodynamic Perspective:  how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts 273. Psychology:  the study of behavior and mental processes. 274. Psychoneuroeimmunology:  study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes affect the immune system. 275. Psychophysics:  the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them. 276. Psychophysiological Illness:  mind-body illness; any stress-related physical illness, including hypertension. 277. Pupil:  the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters. 278. Random Assignment:  assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing pre-existing differences between the two groups. 279. Random Sample:  a sample that fairly represents a given population. 280. Range:  The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution. 281. Recall:  measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier. 82. Recognition:  measure of memory in which the person only identifies items previously learned. 283. Reflex:  a simple, autonomic response to a sensory stimulus. 284. Rehearsal:  conscious repetition of information, either for maintenance or encoding. 285. Reinforcer:  an event that strengthens behavior. 286. Relative Deprivation:  perception that one is worse off relative to those you compare yourself to. 287. Relearning:  a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time. 288. Reliability:  extent to which a test yields consistent results. 89. REM Rebound:  the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation. 290. REM sleep:  rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. 291. Replication:  repeating the essence of a research study to see whether the basic findings extend to other participants and circumstances. 292. Representativeness Heuristic:  judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent particular prototypes. 293. Respondent Behavior:  occurs as automatic response to some stimulus. 294. Reticular Formation:  a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal. 295. Retina:  the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye. 296. Retinal Disparity:  a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing the images of the retinas from the two eyes. 297. Retrieval:  process of getting information out of storage. 298. Retroactive Interference:  the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information. 299. Reuptake:  a neurotransmitters reabsorption by the sending neuron. 300. Rods:  retinal receptors that detect black, white and gray. 301. Savant Syndrome:  condition in which a person is limited in mental ability but has exceptional specific skill. 302. Scatterplots:  a graphed cluster of dots, the slope of which helps predict the direction of the relationship between the two variables. 303. Selective Attention:  the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimuli 304. Semantic Encoding:  encoding of meaning. 305. Semantics:  set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words and sentences. 306. Sensation:  the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment. 07. Sensorineural Hearing Loss:  hearing loss caused by damage to the cochleas receptor cells or to the auditory nerves. Also called nerve deafness. 308. Sensory Adaptation:  diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation. 309. Sensory Cortex:  area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensa tions. 310. Sensory Interaction:  principle that one sense may influence another; smell of food influences its taste. 311. Sensory Memory:  immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory. 12. Sensory Neurons:  neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord. 313. Serial Position Effect:  the tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list. 314. Serotonin:  neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep and arousal. 315. Set Point:  the point where someones weight thermostat. 316. Shaping:  an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior closer and closer to the desired behavior. 317. Short-Term Memory:  activated memory that holds a few items briefly. 318. Sigmund Freud:  Austrian neurologists who founded psychoanalysis. 319. Signal Detection Theory:  a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background noise. Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a persons experience, expectations, motivation and level of fatigue. 320. Sleep Apnea:  a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings. 321. Social Leadership:  group oriented leadership that builds teamwork and offers support. 322. Social Learning Theory:  the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded and punished. 323. Social-cultural Perspective:  how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures 324. Somatic Nervous System:  the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the bodys skeletal muscles. 325. Source Amnesia:  attributing the wrong source to an event we have experienced; at the heart of many false memories. 326. Spacing Effect:  tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better retention that massed study or practice. 327. Split Brain:  a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brains two hemispheres by cutting the fibers connecting them. 328. Spontaneous Recovery:  Reappearance after a pause of an extinguished CR. 329. Standard Deviation:  a computed measure of how much the scores vary around the mean score. 330. Stanford-Binet:  widely used American revision of Binets original intelligence test. 331. Statistical Significance:  a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance. 332. Stereotype Threat:  self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on negative stereotypes. 333. Stimulants:  drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions. 334. Storage:  retention of encoded information. 335. Stress:  how we perceive and respond to stressors that we appraise as threatening or challenging. 336. Structuralism:  an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the structural elements of the human mind. 337. Structured Interviews:  asking the same questions of all applicants and rating on the standard scale. 338. Subjective Well-Being:  self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. 339. Subliminal:  below ones absolute threshold for conscious awareness. 340. Survey:  a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes of behaviors of a group. 341. Sympathetic Nervous System:  the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations. 342. Synapse:  the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. 343. Syntax:  rules for combining words into sensible sentences. 344. Task Leadership:  goal oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes leadership and focuses on goals. 345. Telegraphic Speech:  early speech stage where child speaks like a telegram; uses nouns and verbs. 46. Temporal Lobes:  portion of the cerebral cortex lying above the ears; receives auditory information 347. Testosterone:  the most important of male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex char acteristics during puberty. 348. Thalamus:  the brains sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem. 349. THC:  the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations. 350. Theory:  an explanation that organizes behavior and predicts future outcomes. 351. Threshold:  the level of stimulation necessary to trigger a neural impulse. 352. Thyroid Gland:  affects metabolism, among other things 353. Tolerance:  the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses of the drug before experiencing the drugs effects. 354. Top-Down Processing:  information processing guided by higher level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations. 55. Transduction:  conversion of one form of energy into another. 356. Two_Word Stage:  beginning at age 2; child speaks in 2 word statements. 357. Two-Factor Theory:  called Schachter-Singer Theory; to experience emotion, one must be physically aroused and cognitively label the arousal. 358. Type A:  competitive, hard-driving, impatient. 359. Type B:  easy-going, relaxed people. 360. Ultradian Rhythm :  short-term cycle; less than a day 361. Unconditioned Response:  the unlearned naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus. 362. Unconditioned Stimulus:  a stimulus that unconditionally triggers a response. 363. Validity:  extent to which a test measures what its supposed to measure. 364. Variable-Interval Schedule:  reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after random number of responses. 365. Variable-Ratio Schedule:  reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. 366. Vestibular Sense:  sense of body movement and position including balance. 367. Visual Cliff:  lab device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals. 368. Visual Encoding:  encoding of picture images. 369. Watson and Rayner:  famous for their Little Albert experiment. 370. Wavelength:  the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. 371. Webers Law:  the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage. 372. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale:  most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and non-verbal sub-tests. 373. Wernickes Area:  controls language reception; a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression in left temporal lobe. 74. Wilhelm Wundt:  known as father of experimental psychology; established the first psychology laboratory. 375. Withdrawal:  the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug. 376. Working Memory:  a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual spatial information and of informa tion retrieved from long-term memory. 377. X-Chromosome:  the sex chromosome found in both men and women. 378. Y-Chromosome:  the sex chromosome found only in men. 379. Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory:  the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors red, green and blue. absolute threshold:   The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time. 2. accommodation:   The process by which the eyes lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina. 3. accommodations:   Adapting ones current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information. 4. acetylcholine:   A neurotransmitter that, among its functions, triggers muscle contraction. 5. acoustic encoding:   The encoding of sounds, especially the sound of words. . acquisition:   The initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response. 7. action potential:   A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down a n axon. The action potential is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axons membrane. 8. activation synthesis hypothesis:   Theory to describe dreaming that explains dreaming as being random neural activity hat the brain tries to make sense of. 9. acuity:   The Sharpness of vision. 10. addictions:  dependency to drugs comes about from potentially one use of the substance were the body can build up dependence to the substance. 11. adolescence:   The transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence. 12. adrenal glands:   A pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys. The adrenals secrete the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (nonadrenaline), which help to arouse the body in times of stress. 13. ll or nothing law:   Increasing the stimulus above the threshold will not increase the action potential intensity. The neurons action is an all or nothing response; it either wi ll fire or it will not. The strength of the stimulus does not effect action potentials speed. 14. alpha waves:   The relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state. 15. alzheimers disease:   A progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally physical functioning. 16. amnesia:   The loss of memory 17. mygdala:   Two almond-shaped neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion. 18. assimilation:   Interpreting ones new experience in terms of ones existing schemas. 19. association areas:   Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking. 20. associative learning:   Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (a s in operant conditioning). 1. attachment:   An emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation. 22. audition:   The sense of hearing 23. automatic nervous system:   The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms. 24. automatic processing:   Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings. 25. xon:   The extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands. 26. barbiturates:   Drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement. 27. basiler membrane:  within the cochlea of the inner ear is a stiff structural element that separates two liquid-filled tubes that run along the coil of the cochlea, the scala media and the scala tympani. 28. behavioral genetics:   The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior. 29. Behavioral Psychology:  a branch of psychology that focuses on how we learn from observable responses. An individuals response to different environment stimuli shapes our behaviors. 30. Behaviorism:  The view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree that psychology should be an objective science but do not think that it should be without reference to mental processes. 31. behaviorism:   The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. For example, intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures. 193. opiates:   Opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety. 194. opponent-process theory:   The theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green 195. optic nerve:   The nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain. 96. parallel processing:   The processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brains natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving. 197. parallel processing:   The processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brains natural mode of informatio n processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscience problem solving. 198. Parasympathetic nervous system:   The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy. 199. parietal lobes:   The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; includes the sensory cortex. 200. Peripheral nervous system:   The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body. 201. PET:   A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task. 202. Phenotype:   An organisms physical characteristics is its phenotype.